Addendum I - Time-Lines

Addendum (I), Time-Lines:

(A) PREHISTORIC ART

(1) Paleolithic Art approx. 35,000 - 8,000 BCE.

Social Conditions	-	Nomadic life of a hunting-gathering culture.
Religious Inclination	-	anamistic, (veneration of natural life-forces0.
Imagery emphasized	-	Pregnant animals (rather naturalistically shown with a few abstractions). Pregnant women (fewer and more abstract).
Media	-	Paintings on cave walls, (earthen pigment mixed with animal fat; also small bone or stone amulets).
Major Site:	-	Lascaux, France, discovered in 1940.
*Note these terms:
(1) conceptual image - (an image of an idea - often abstract)		(2) perceptual image - (an image of an object, as actually seen always representational).

(2) Mesolithic Art approx. 8,000 - 6,000 BCE.
The two oldest, extant cities:
Jericho (present day Jordan), c. 7,000 BCE., highpoint of development.
Catal Huyuk in Anatolia (Turkey), 6,000 BCE., highpoint of development.

(3) Neolithic Art approx. 6,000 - 3,500 BCE.

Social conditions	-	Village life of a farming culture, near a river basin.
Religious inclination	-	“Ancestor worship,” (veneration of life forces as conveyed through the continuity of the “clan”).
Imagery emphasized	-	The human head often abstracted and shown gazing into space, as into the “Spirit-world.”

(B) THE ART OF THE FIRST GREAT CIVILIZATION

(I) Mid-Fourth through Third Millennia BCE, approx. 3,500 - 2,000 BCE.
(a) Mesopotamia, (b) Egypt, (c) Indus Valley Culture, in contemporary Pakistan.
(d) (recent discoveries in Turkey and Peru may indicate existence of earlier civilizations)

(II) Second Millennium BCE, approx. 2,000 - 1,000 BCE.
(a) China, (b) Aegean, (Minoan and Mycenean), (c) Meso-American

(C) ANCIENT GREEK ART

Archaic Period
(7th - 6th cens. BCE.)
ie. kouros ( kouroi pl), or such as, Kroisos,
(mostly glyptic & (abstract)
“A Transitional Style”

Classical Period
(5th - 4th cens. BCE.)
ie. Apollo of Olympia, or Poseidon of Artemision,
more representational though idealized - mostly plastic).
*Classicism -”Idealized-Naturalism”

Hellenistic Period
(3rd - 1st cens. BCE.)
ie. Apollo Belvedere, Winged Victory,
(completely representational, or “naturalistic;” entirely plastic).
”Dramatic-naturalism”

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(D) THE MEDIEVAL TRADITION:

(Begins with the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE.)

(1) The Early Middle Ages:

(a) “The Migration Period:” c. 6th through 8th centuries CE.

The style of European art of this time is known as the Hiberno-Saxon style, or more loosely as the, Animal Style. It consists of: (1) two-dimensional patterns; (2) intense colors; (3) a predominant use of diagonal compositional lines; and, at times, diagonal spirals; (4) horror- vacui, (consisting of fill-in patterns throughout a surface area); (5) clear, definite, bold contours; (6) use of small abstracted images of animals, such as snakes and birds, shown interlaced within each other. The expression conveyed by this style is one of energetic-intensity.

(b) The Carolingian Period: 9th century CE.

The Carolingian Period produced a partial revival of Classical Greco-Roman form and imagery. Largely influenced and initiated by Charlemangne, (“Charles the Great”) the king of the Franks and first Holy Roman Emperor. The style emphasizes an attempt to achieve naturalistic imagery, (see, the frontispiece of the Gospels of St. Matthew, IN251, patron, Archbishop Ebbo of Reims, Fr., 816-823 CE.).

(c) The Ottonian Period: the 10th century CE.

This was a time of invasion and consequent shrinkage of the Holy Roman Empire to mostly what is today is Austria and Hungary. Since many of the descendants of Charlemangne were called Otto, this period is known as, Ottonian. The art is more structured, consisting of large geometrical shapes, often placed in strict symmetrical arrangement. The expression conveyed is one of monumental grandeur and stability. The style is emphatically abstract, a synthesis of large formal units, aspects of Byzantine style, and remnants of the Animal Style.

(2) The High Middle Ages:

(d) The Romanesque Period: 11th century and first half of the12th century.

Romanesque style reflects the authoritarianism and insecurity of the feudal age. Massive abstract forms, hieratic proportion, and symmetrical composition are emphasized. Though Romanesque imagery often appears aggressive, to our contemporary eyes the figures also convey aspects similar to caricature. The bold contours and the distorted expressions contribute to this impression. Nevertheless, the strong diagonal thrusts in pose and gesture; the strange twists and zigzags of the contorted figures; and the use of horror-vacui (fill-in patterns) convey a sense of stylistic tension. Exemplary is the relief sculpture on the central tympanum of the facade of the Church of San Pierre; Moissac, France. The subject depicted, Christ in Glory was frequently used for central tympani of the royal portals of many Romanesque and Gothic churches. The subject represents Christ’s return at the end of time, also known as the “Second Coming,” (or, Parousia in Greek). Unfortunately, the example at Moissac is not illustrated in the text. For others similar examples, see those on the three following Romanesque churches in France: the Abbey Church of the La Madeline at Vezelay; the Abbey Church of Ste-Foy at Conques, Rouerque; and the Cathedral of St. Lazare at Autun.

(e) The Gothic Period: last half of the 12th century. and the 13th century.

It was during the Gothic period that the pointed arch began to be used more consistently, especially in church architecture. Yet the pointed arch was only one feature of the new Gothic skeletal system. Consequently, a new Gothic aesthetic developed emphasizing interior spaciousness; increasing verticality; and seemingly transformed natural light through the use of stain glass windows. Furthermore, the Gothic church provided the environment, background, and support for most of the other visual arts, such as sculpture and painting.

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(E) THE RENAISSANCE TRADITION:

(1) The “Proto-Renaissance” Period: c. 1300 - 1348: The Proto-Renaissance was A period in Italian history, in which artists made significant, initial progress toward the development of naturalistic (representational) imagery. The two most notable artists of this period were Duccio di Bouninsegna of Siena, (active 1278-1319) and Giotto dI Bondone of Florence, (c. 266-1337). Duccio, Giotto, and their followers advanced the development of representational art, largely through their more close observation of Nature and their application of aspects of Greco-Roman art.

The “Plague Period:” 1348 - 1400: During the last half of the 14th century, almost three quarters of the population of Europe was eliminated by the devastating effects of the Bubonic Plague. The resulting demoralization lead artists to revert to the use of older, more traditionally “reliable,” and ecclesiastically sanctioned styles, such as the Byzantine style and the International Gothic style . In addition, little was done to carry on the naturalistic developments in artistic expression that were initiated by the Proto-Renaissance artists. *(Simply, be aware of this period; what it was and when it occurred. There will be no time to consider individual artists or their work in this course).

(2) The “Early Renaissance” of the 15th century: (1400s):
Artists of this period developed more accurate knowledge in the depiction of naturalistic phenomena and in understanding more about Greco-Roman art. For example, In Florence, Italy, major advancements were made in the depiction of the human form through more accurate understanding of the contrapposto pose, seen in many examples of Greco-Roman art, and from one-point, (or linear) perspective, developed by the architect, Filippo Brunelleschi. .
A corresponding Renaissance occurred in Northern Europe, beginning in the province of Flanders. However, Northern European artists did not incorporate Classical imagery in their work until the 16th century; nor did they develop an art of psychological expression as did the Italians. Nevertheless, Flemish artists were the first to consistently use and perfect the medium of oil paint, which enabled them to depict meticulous details of objects to an extraordinary degree and to convey the illusion of the textures of objects and of the luminosity of light. The Flemish artists also developed a more intuitive approach toward depicting the illusion perspective. The approach is known as atmospheric perspective. Since warm colors optically appear closer to the viewer than do cool colors, Flemish painters began to realize that a convincing illusion of depth could be produced, by emphasizing warm colors in the foreground of a picture and increasingly emphasizing cooler colors from the mid-ground to background.
A term, which may be used in referencing 15th century Renaissance art, both in Italy and in Northern Europe, would be “Experimental-Renaissance.”

Pioneering Florentine Artists, (of the first generation of the 15th century):
In Architecture, *Filippo Brunelleschi
In Sculpture, *Lorenzo Ghiberti and *Donatello
In Painting, *Masaccio

Pioneering Flemish Artist, (of the first generation of the 15th century):
In Painting, Robert Campin, *Jan van Eyck, Roger van der Weyden,
and later in the century *Hugo van der Goes

(3) The “High Renaissance:” approx., 1500 - 1520: The High Renaissance was a period, in which artists built upon the achievements of the Early Renaissance and sought to develop a more ideal form of art, based on Classical Greco-Roman examples. A term, which could be used in referencing High Renaissance style would be, balanced-restraint.

In Italy: The Center of Patronage shifted to Rome, where the popes became the chief patrons. Three of the giants in the history of art, Leonardo da Vinci, (sculptor, painter, architect, etc.), Michelangelo Buonarotti, (painter, sculptor, architect, etc.), and Raphael Santo,(painter and architect). flourished at this time; and two of them helped, Michelangelo and Raphael, helped make. In addition, Donato Bramante, one of the most significant architects of the time, was commissioned by Pope Julius II to *become the first architect of the new St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

*Significant Teachers:

Domenico Ghirlandaio, teacher of Michelangelo, especially in fresco painting.

Andrea del Verrocchio, teacher of Leonardo da Vinci

Pietro Perugino, teacher of Raphael Santo

In Northern Europe: The Center of Patronage Shifted to Germany, where Lutheran princes and noblemen began to support the arts. Three of the most remarkable German painters of this time were: Albrecht Durer, Mathias Grunewald, and Hans Holbein the Younger. Also of note was, Hieronymous Bosch, a Flemish, painter, active c. 1500, who produced not only work that was transitional from the Early to the High Renaissance, but also some of the strangest paintings of all time, (see IN276, Bosch’s, Garden of Earthly Delights, ).

(4) “Mannerism:” approx. 1520 - 1600: The distortion and strangeness of the art of this period reflects the significant anxiety and unrest produced by such adverse events and circumstances as the Sack of Rome in 1527; new outbreaks of Bubonic Plague; and the religious turmoil and conflict, resulting from the Protestant Reformation, the Roman Catholic response to it, and disagreement and enmity among various Protestant denominations. (Indeed, owing to these divisions, senseless religious hatred and warfare would continue down to our own time). See the list of Mannerist Stylistic Aspects, referred to above. A term, which could be used in referencing Mannerist art would be, “tension.”

Some of the most significant Mannerist Artists were:

In Italy: Among noteworthy Florentines painters were *Jacopo Pontormo, Parmigianino, and IL Rosso Fiorentino and among the sculptors were Giovanni da Bologna (also known as,*Giambologna) and *Michelangelo. Notably, Michelangelo’s fresco of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel in Rome became the greatest and most influential of all Mannerist works. With the Last Judgment (1534-41 CE), Michelangelo made a complete brake from the High Renaissance style of his Sistine Chapel Ceiling fresco,

In Northern Europe: Among noteworthy Mannerist painters were
*Pieter Bruegel the Elder (Flem.); Lucas Cranach, (Ger.); and Albrecht Altdorfer (Ger.).

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(F) The Baroque Development: 1580-1700:

(1) The “Proto-Baroque:” approx. 1580 – 1600: The Proto-baroque was not a separate period of art. Rather, it was a transitional stage, which prepared the way for the more complete baroque development of the following century. This development occurred through many areas of Northern Italy. *However, even earlier, toward the beginning of the century, the artists in Venice, returned to the use of more naturalistic imagery and significantly added a rich sense of texture, luminosity, and new dramatic immediacy to their work, creating many amazing Illustionistic affects, which would strongly influence the later baroque art of the seventeenth century.

(2) The “Baroque” Proper: the 17th Century: Rather than being an entirely new development, Baroque art, in many ways, is the fulfillment of the achievements of the Renaissance, with the dynamic addition of the Baroque interest in dramatic expression. Though baroque style first developed in Rome, it soon spread and became international. In many ways, the Baroque period was one of the most richly creative artistic and varied periods in the history art, producing many national schools of great significance. A term that could be used in referencing baroque art would be “dramatic-illusionism.”

Some of Significant Artists of the Baroque Period:

In Rome: *Gianlorenzo Bernini, (mostly in sculpture) and *Caravaggio (painting).
In Belgium: *Pieter Paul Rubens, (painting).
In Holland: *Rembrandt van Rijn, (painting).
In Spain: *Diego Velasquez, (among others in painting).
In France: *J. H. Mansart, (architecture of Versailles)
In England: William Hogarth, (painting),

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(G) The Rococo Period: c. 1700 - 1750.

The Rococo period produced a more decorative, diminished baroque style, emphasizing delicacy of line, whether thin, curvilinear, or; color of soft pastel tones, rather than the more brilliant colors pf baroque art; and generally smaller works of largely pastoral scenes. (As example, see Fragonard’s painting, The Swing. IN450 and Watteau’s painting, Embarkation for Cythera IN451).

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(H) THE MODERN TRADITION:

First Phase: Nineteenth Century:

“The Age of Personal Expression”
(*Note, in the 19th century, Paris became the center of art in the western world):

(1) Neo-Classicism, approx. 1750 - 1820: Neo-classical style was a reaction against the ephemeral, aristocratic Rococo style of the early 18th century. Neo-Classicists emphasized democratic ideals, clear depiction of imagery, and geometrical compositional arrangement. However, to modern eyes, Neo-Classical figures often appear rigid with exaggerated expressions and gestures. The major contribution of Neo-Classicism to the development of Modern Art is the awareness of the significance of geometrical structure in formal works of art. Two very influential Neo-Classicists were J. L. David and J-A-D. Ingres.

(2) Romanticism, approx. 1820 - 1840: Romanticism was a highly emotional and individualistic reaction against, what the Romantics considered to be the rigid and overly staged character of Neo-classical art. Romantic artists rejected the academic dependence on slavish copying of Greek, Roman, and Renaissance proto-types. They also rejected the static teaching, methods of the Academy, as existed in Ecole de Beaux Arts (School of Fine Arts), which supported and prompted the Neo-classicism style. In contrast to Neo-classical art, Romantic art is more emotionally immediate. Romantic artists achieved this intensity by emphasizing strong color, intense contrasts of light and shade, visible brushstrokes, use of impasto paint, predominant diagonal emphasis in compositional direction, and spontaneous execution. Also, contrary to the Neo-classicist’s fondness for consistent direct lighting, clear definite line, and dramatic gesturing, Romantic artists proclaimed that color was the most important aspect in art and should be preeminent over all other aspects.

The Two most Influential French Romantic Artists:
Theodore Gericault and Eugene Delacroix

A Few Romantic Artists of other Countries:

In England: *Joseph W. Turner, John Constable, John E. Millais
In Germany: *Casper David Frederick
In the United States: *Thomas Cole and Frederick Church.

(3) “Realism,” approx. 1840-1860 Two significant aspects:

(a) The Subject matter (or genre) “Realism” of Gustave Courbet. In 1855 Courbet constructed his Pavilion of Realism for the purpose of exhibiting his own work, apart from that of the official Salon of the same year, (the Salon was the official exhibition of art that was sponsored annually by the French Academy of Fine Arts's ). Contrary, to academic work, Courbet emphasized subject matter depicting common activities of the underclass. He also used loser brushwork, but not as lose or as vigorous at that of the Romantic painters.

(b) The Naturalistic Landscapes of the Barbizon School. Near the middle of the century, a significant number of French painters began to meet in a small village in the Fontainebleau Forest called, Barbizon, thus the group of artists that gathered there became known as artists of the Barbizon School. Barbizon painters rejected the intensity of Romantic art, in favor of more direct observation of Nature. This type of work was made even more possible by the habit of the Barbizon artists to paint outdoors and the contemporary invention of the portable tubes of paint. The work of the Barbizon artists was a significant influence on the French Impressionist painters of the late 19th century, who continued to paint outdoors. Two of the most influential Barbizon artists were:
Gustave Courbet and Camille Corot.

(4) “Emotional-Realists:” *Note, this term does not refer to a style or an historical period. Rather, it is used as a means to categorize the work of two artists, who were vastly separated in time and place. Nevertheless, these two artists created the most abstract art before the 1870s.
The two were: Francisco Goya (Sp.) and Honore Daumier (Fr.).

(5) Two “Proto-Impressionists,” 1860s-70s: - *Neither does this term refer to a movement or a stylistic tendency; rather the term refers to the work of two artists, who continued to use abstraction and whose work greatly influenced the Impressionists painters. The two are; Edouard Manet and Edgar Degas.

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Two Major Influences on European art at mid-19th century:

(a) Photography: Nicephore Niepce - produced the first photograph in 1826; and J. L. Daguerre popularized photography with his daguerreotypes.

(b) Japanese Art: the opening of Japanese trade with most of the world markets, occurred through the insistence United States. To achieve this purpose, in 1854 Commodore Perry was ordered to sail American gunboats to the Bay of Tokyo to force the Japanese to opening up their markets.

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(6) Impressionism, 1874 - 1886:
A movement formerly organized by the artists. Together, the Impressionist artists organized eight exhibitions, in which they exhibited their work and that of other avant garde artists of the time. Since the official Academy would not accept their work, the Impressionists exhibited their work in various small galleries in Paris. The fist Impressionist exhibition of 1874 was held in the studio of the experimental photographer, Nadar,’ who was a significant supporter of the Impressionists.

The two most representative Impressionists Artists were:

Claude Monet and Auguste Renoir. (Though the Impressionists sought to capture, what they believed to be the ultimate visual reality, sun light as it hits the retina of the eye. Nevertheless, despite their intention, they ironically produced the most abstract art up to their time. Their use of quickly placed dabs of colorful impasto paint throughout the surface resulted in a method of painting that by its very nature essentially articulates the surface of the canvas and, thus, emphasizes its two-dimensional character. Also, the brilliance of color and the realization of color in shadows, related to the Impressionists interest in, and use of, complementary colors).

(7) “Post-Impressionism,” approx. Mid-1880s to 1900:

*Note this term does not refer to a style or to a movement; rather it is used to indicate a chronological period, in which many styles were developed, most of which were styles of individual artists. *This also was the first period in the history of art when rational and irrational tendencies existed simultaneously. Therefore, it will be helpful to group notable “Post-Impressionist” artists according to those that emphasized rational (formal) aspects in their work and those that emphasized irrational (expressionistic) aspects in their work.

(a) Representative Artists of the "Rational Tendency": Paul Gauguin, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and George Seurat. (1) Seurat developed a laborious technique of creating his images by covering an entire canvas with extremely small, precisely placed dots of the same size, yet varying in color. Seurat’s short lived movement is known as, Pointillism. (2) The art of Paul Gauguin and Toulouse Lautrec indirectly influenced the most pervasive, decorative style of the time known as, Art Nouveau. The style of Art Nouveau consists of surfaces of flat color (or of neutrals) and dynamic calligraphic lines, often related to plant imagery. (3)The Belgium architect, Victor Horta and the Austrian architect, Joseph Maria Olbrich were some of the first to develop and these stylistic features in their work. (4) Also, the faceted, structural style of the painter, Paul Cezanne later greatly influenced further developments in the rational tendency; most significantly Pablo Picasso and George Braque’s later development of Analytical Cubism.

(b) Representative Artists of the "Irrational" (Expressionistic) Tendency:

Painters of note are were Vincent van Gogh (Dutch), and Edvard Munch (Norwegian); while the one significant and most influential sculptor was, Auguste Rodin (Fr.). As the Romantic artists, the Expressionist artists quickly executed their work, using thick impasto paint and strong contrasting colors; but the Expressionists did so with increased intensity and with little concern for the objects of perception. Instead, the Expressionists directly used their personal emotional experiences to transform the images that they shaped.

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Modern Tradition, cont.:

Second Phase:

The Twentieth Century, “Art in an Age of Anxiety:”

(1) “Expressionism:”

(a) French Expressionism, or Fauvism, 1905 -1908: As with the term “Impressionism,” the term Fauvism was pejoratively applied by a critic to describe the work of these French expressionist artists. The specific word that was used is fauve meaning, “wild beast.” As with the term, “Impressionism,” the Fauve artists simply accepted the designation, despite its negative implication. The Fauves were a loosely formed group of like-minded artists, who began exhibiting together in 1905. The most influential artist of the group was: Henri Matisse. Two other notable Fauve painters were, Andre Derain and George Rouault.

(b) German Expressionism, 1905 - early1930s:
This development is known as, Die Brucke, (“The Bridge”), a term coined by the artists themselves. The movement consisted entirely of German artists and was organized in Dresden, Germany in 1905, the same year that the Fauves began exhibiting in Paris. Brucke painting often expresses dark, brooding, and pessimistic moods. The use of intensely distorted images, dark colors juxtaposed next to bright colors, and extreme angular shapes contribute to the expression of such somber emotions. The work of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner is representative.
* On the other hand, the work of the later German expressionist, Kathe Kollwitz did not develop within a movement, nor was it influenced by one. Her powerful drawings and lithographs are of significance in their own right. Kathe Kollwitz’s art reflects an intense sense of empathy with suffering humanity, particularly that which she experienced in Germany after the First World War. She unquestionably was one of the greatest artists of the century.

(2) The Art of Pablo Picasso: some basic stylistic periods of Picasso’s art::

(1) The Blue Period; (2) The Rose (or Circus Period): (3) Analytical Cubism;

(4) Synthetic Cubism; (5) Expressionism of the years of World War II; (6) The Late Pastoral Period.

(3) “Dada,” 1915 - 1921: This movement emphasized the value of the subconscious or what these artists called, “the absurd.” Psychologically and creatively these artists hoped to counteract the more immediate absurdity of the senseless suffering and slaughter, which was taking place around them during the First World War. The Dadaist movement began in Zurich, Switzerland, a neutral country. One of the more lasting contributions of Dadaists was the introduction of the, "ready-made," a sculptural object, which is not made, but creatively “found” among already discarded common, pragmatic objects). The artist most representative of the Dadaist movement was the Frenchman, Marcel Duchamp.

(4) Surrealism, 1924: Surrealism was a movement organized in Paris in 1924 by artists and poets. Their intention was to also recognize the vitality of the subconscious, but more specifically, as the subconscious that makes itself known through dreams. Therefore, Surrealist works of art manifest attempts to give concrete imagery to specific dream experiences. Tough not an official member of the group, the Spaniard, Salvador Dali became the most well known and most representative of the Surrealists.

(5) The 1920s and 1930s:

Neo-Plasticism: a movement, also known as De Stijl, which was begun in Holland by the painter, Piet Mondrian. “Neo-plastic” art is a rational/nonrepresentational art in the extreme. Mondrian was rigid and doctrinaire in his approach, insisting on use of only right angles, black lines, white background, all or at least one of the primary colors , and no use of frames.
Art Deco: was an international, decorative movement, which emphasized absolute bilateral symmetry in composition, and the use of angular shapes and imagery reminiscent of Egyptian and/or the Meso-American decorative motifs. A good example would be the decorative features on the upper exterior spire of the Chrysler Building by William van Allen, New York City.

(6) Abstract-Expressionism 1940s through early 1960s: This was the first original American art movement. Abstract Expressionist artists, for the most part, were concerned with the creation of non-representational/irrational work. The term, “Abstract-Expressionism,” was coined by critic and is actually a misnomer, since most often Abstract Expressionist art contains no recognizable images and, therefore, cannot be “abstract.” The painter, who was most representative of the movement, was Jackson Pollock.

(7) The 1960s:
(a) Pop Art: was basically was an American art movement, through which commercial imagery was emphasized. Two representative artists were Andy Warhol, (painter and film-maker) and
Claes Oldenburg, (sculptor`).
(b) Op Art: was a non-representational style that emphasizes the Illustionistic interplay of many, small, repetitive, geometric shapes, placed within a regularized pattern, varied only enough to create the desired Illustionistic effect. The artist most associated with this development was the Hungarian painter, Victor Vasarely. Op Art had a very short existence, since many soon lost interest in the approach. In reality, the development was more an experimental phase, rather than a movement.

(8) Minimal Art 1970s: is mostly an American development, in which large canvas surfaces are covered with a flat consistent application of paint in large geometrical or semi-geometrical patterns. Also, the stretchers behind the canvases often are configured to form large geometrical forms, other than the rectangle or the square. The result is a shaped-canvas, as example, see paintings of Frank Stella. Minimal Art also has a sculptural dimension, represented by sculptors such as, Robert Morris and David Smith. *One must keep in mind that the term, “minimal.” as used in this context, does not refer to the size of the work, but only to the “minimal” means used in creating it. In fact, most of the works themselves are extremely large.

(9) Superrealism, 1970s: is a development in contemporary art, in which every object appears extremely representational in meticulous detail. The artist often will make a very detailed examination of a photograph to guide the painting. However, “Superreal” images also appear strangely unnatural, in that the subject matter never appears to reveal indications of dirt, grime, wear, or deterioration and in that certain features, such as reflections in windows or water, are often exaggerated. Since Superreal images are often scaled to the proportion of the average viewer, the viewer is, in a sense, invited to experience the work as and extension of this/her immediate surroundings. Consequently, Superrealist works often evoke a paradoxical reaction, appearing both very recognizably and spatial in illusion, while also appearing strangely different. As examples, see the work of the painter, Richard Estes and the sculpture of, Duane Hanson.

(10) Conceptual Art, 1980s to present: is one of the most enduring, yet one of the most bewildering, of contemporary movements. Objects often are arranged provocatively in a gallery, or presented as a relatively unrehearsed “performance,” without plot or episode, but rather as provocative experience. In either case, no specific idea or response is suggested or desired by the artist. As in many other varied aspects of our strange “Post Modern” age, the viewer’s response and/or interpretation always is valid, no matter how it may seem to be at variance with others’ responses and /or interpretations. See “wrapped” and “hanging” works of Christo, among others,

(11) Deconstructive Post-Modernism: Mostly emphasized in late 20th and early 21st century architecture, as in Frank Gerhy's Guggenheim Museum of Art in Bilbao, Spain, 1998.